<h3 id="preface"><strong>Preface</strong></h3><p>Polkadot has a staking architecture that encourages its token holders to take significant active participation in the security of the network; a strategy game that requires frequent monitoring and re-configuring of nominators' validator set which is incentivised through financial rewards and penalties. The aim of Polkadot is to obtain a continuously revised optimal selection of validators securing their Network. However, the P2P Polkadot team noticed that many DOT nominators were not receiving consistent daily rewards which raised the question of whether the anticipated behaviour was being achieved. The following research paper is devoted to the analysis of nominators behaviour in the active participation of managing their validator set in the Polkadot network. We hope that this will not only inform nominators on how to best manage their stake, but to provide the Polkadot community with a better understanding of the current state of nominator participation, and how to best manage the expectations moving forwards.</p><p>All data used for analysis in the research was obtained from publicly available sources such as MBELT and Subscan.</p><h3 id="how-does-polkadot-staking-work"><strong>How does Polkadot Staking work?</strong></h3><p>Polkadot uses a nominated proof of stake consensus algorithm to achieve consensus in the network.</p><p>Token holders can nominate their DOT holdings to validators (node operators) who will earn staking rewards on their behalf and redistribute it daily to their nominators after taking a fee for their service.</p><p>Validators go through an election phase at the end of each era (24h) where the top 297 validators (ranked by volume of stake) qualify to be part of the elected set responsible for staking in the subsequent era.</p><p>Nominators are given the option to nominate up to 16 validator addresses they trust. At the start of each era, through the use of Sequential Phragmén Method, each nominator's stake is allocated to one <strong><em>elected</em></strong> validator in their selected set. The aim is to evenly distribute the stake amongst validators.</p><figure class="kg-card kg-image-card"><img src="https://lh5.googleusercontent.com/ZhD2cZBlBnJBj345F6kwQ2X7WuZ2VFO2b8cK_Q60IHqQq8Q9xsyCq_aUOr5jA0F92f1SptBgqa61klseoOummmcrh6n_H08XiqKZizaG4Jl8C39LfOpy1lZ4yC0nkrQ0TFwa5SVzmQmdYboeSQ" class="kg-image" alt loading="lazy"></figure><h3 id="why-should-nominators-care-about-updating-their-validator-list"><strong>Why should nominators care about updating their validator list?</strong></h3><p>Regularly updating your validator list has two key benefits; maximising rewards and ensuring the security of funds.</p><p>The Polkadot protocol seeks to provide an even rewards distribution among well performing validators. Therefore, a nominator that has their stake allocated to an active validator with a lower amount of stake will receive higher rewards had their stake been allocated to a validator with a greater amount of stake. This is because the same amount of rewards will be distributed to less DOT.</p><figure class="kg-card kg-image-card"><img src="https://lh4.googleusercontent.com/ko4MROAwnoq6JDCWA6EfRUTnEjYAsYiOJcRp7QTe1U8aMTw240saLJPmmXAuuQ97SNrtA_704Vgw8zoAbaQ5EXWoduP8lHwNT6OZpDX1J9bHAKx3cErQFWdTicFS70QffzpJv-cf0UdUJEUWgA" class="kg-image" alt loading="lazy"></figure><p>Additionally, only the top 256 nominators (ranked by the volume of their stake) will receive rewards per active validator. Which means nominators, especially ones with lower stakes, should avoid <a href="https://help.p2p.org/en/articles/5271375-over-subscribed-polkadot-dot-pool?ref=p2p.org">oversubscribed validators</a>. On the other hand, only the top 297 validators (ranked by volume of stake) qualify to be part of the elected set responsible for staking in the subsequent era. It is therefore important for nominators to verify whether their validator set contains some validators that will likely be elected in the next era.</p><p>If any of their validators stop behaving accordingly, it is important for nominators to remove them from their list to avoid being slashed. Validators, including their nominators, can be punished financially for compromising the security of the network. This incentivises nominators to only nominate trustworthy validators, which in turn creates a strong set of validators to secure the network.</p><p>While it is clear that nominators curating their validator set increases the network performance by ensuring a continuously renewed optimal validator set, it is important to note that the staking architecture should be developed in a way where the cost of researching and updating the validator set is not greater than the rewards earned. The lower the stake of a nominator, the lower the rewards earned for a similar amount of research required. It can therefore be estimated that nominators with lower stake are more likely to inadequately re-configure their validator set.</p><h3 id="investigation-into-the-missed-rewards"><strong>Investigation into the missed rewards</strong></h3><p>The aim of this research was to see how often nominators were missing out on rewards. We collected data from all 22500 active nominators on June 20 2022 and summed the number of days that nominators did not receive rewards in the last 30 days. We only included nominators that did not receive rewards for 10 or more days during the month.</p><p>There are several reasons why nominators may not receive their rewards:</p><p>1. The nominators do not meet the minimum stake requirement of ~120 DOT. The minimum is dynamic and is set based on the top 256 nominators of a validator receiving rewards.</p><p>2. Their nominated validator set is being mismanaged by selecting oversubscribed validators in their list or by only having validators that are not elected.</p><p>3. Validators did not pay out the rewards by increasing commissions to 100%.</p><p>The below graph charts our findings.</p><figure class="kg-card kg-image-card"><img src="https://lh6.googleusercontent.com/13JffpFYTi_crQca1bigWYqOKzwQH2SyReN2tXEMql2mPFAE6e0NL3OtRqujKQiUu_Gx21_j0KHuAroIl_gX6R3ce8Zq6VDmJy8MxFOdJyKKtOq1vMjXcN9H9LU218KuLmqrGYvVfhVtj03iHg" class="kg-image" alt loading="lazy"></figure><p>A total of 2 166 nominators holding 1 928 751 DOT stake did not receive rewards for 10 or more days. Out of the nominators that we retrieved, 89 had a stake greater than 500 DOT, 2 050 with a stake between 120 (the minimum stake) and 500 DOT, and only 27 with less than 120 DOT.</p><figure class="kg-card kg-image-card"><img src="https://lh6.googleusercontent.com/sK2EPkb75eOxZ76Oj7vJppGfNgroiCZplO_AMivZvFmcK-LTTcmMwdPTLLYVADDcsE84VlZJlW39fwcLC60SRsIDm2WnkBzqLZBszmIQKFIhw1lKri_USxsH9n3E_vD962zHVTeUQkWzaGM_Rg" class="kg-image" alt loading="lazy"></figure><p>A total of 2139 out of 22,500 (~10%) nominators with stakes over the minimum requirement (120 DOT) did not receive rewards for 10 or more days of rewards and are currently being left out of at least 1/3 of potential rewards.</p><p>Our data points to the fact that there is a clear lack of participation in the management of the selection of validators from retail token holders.</p><p>Further research needs to be made to specify whether this lack of participation comes from the insufficient knowledge from individual token holders, or whether the labour required to research and reconfigure validator sets is too large versus the earnings they make from staking. In either case, it is clear that the process needs to be made simpler to retail clients.</p><p>While there are significant amounts of educational material out there to guide users on how to manage their stake, the extensiveness of the guides available can be daunting for beginners.</p><p>Polkadot.js is arguably the most popular analytical tool provided by the community to help curate a nominators validator set, however it is complex. There needs to be more made available tools (such as <a href="https://yieldscan.app/setup-wallet?ref=p2p.org">yieldscan</a>) that incorporate ease of use and choice given to the nominator. <br><br>In the meantime, we have created a list of active and undersubscribed validators to help nominators select a set that will generate daily rewards. You can find it below.</p><p>https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1OCS5YALL7Dt_C5SWHEG7Zzxc6OqHtC5e9lQHfjH8f8c/edit#gid=0</p><h3 id="conclusion">Conclusion</h3><p>The security of the Polkadot network relies on the active participation of nominators. Our investigation has highlighted that, while Polkadot’s idea to gain an edge in becoming the securest validator is a great concept, the execution hasn't seen the uptake they were hoping for. There is a high % of individual token holders that are currently not receiving daily rewards due to the lack of participation in the relatively complex staking architecture. There are a lot of compelling reasons for nominators to be participating in Polkadot’s architecture but the complexity of the system and the time investment for those with less stake can be off-putting.</p><p>As the number of nominators are on the uptrend, it is important for the development of more user-friendly tools to simplify the inclusion and participation of all nominators while still giving them freedom of choice. If Polkadot can find a way to simplify its architecture and invest in more user friendly tools, not only will it attract more retail nominators but also highly likely the uptake of retail nominators consistently updating their validators becomes significantly higher, leading to the selection of a more optimal validator set to secure the network.</p><h3 id="about-p2p">About P2P</h3><p><a href="https://p2p.org/?ref=p2p.org">P2P Staking</a> is a world-leading staking provider with the best industry security practices and proven expertise. We provide comprehensive due-diligence of digital assets and offer only top-notch staking opportunities. At the time of the latest update, <strong>more than 1.5 billion of USD value is staked with P2P Validator by over 25,000 delegators across 25+ networks.</strong> We are early DOT investors and the largest validator by staking volume. We are committed to provide long term support for the network.</p><p>If you have any questions, feel free to join our<a href="https://t.me/P2Pstaking?ref=p2p.org"> Telegram chat</a>, we are always open for communication.<br></p>

<h3 id="restaking-with-p2porg-know-your-avs"><br>Restaking with P2P.org: Know Your AVS</h3><p></p><p>The latest development in the EigenLayer protocol has culminated with the launch of the EigenLayer Stage 2 mainnet. This phase marks the introduction of Operators, who assume responsibility for performing validation tasks for Actively Validated Services (AVS) built on the EigenLayer protocol. This pivotal step is a significant protocol evolution as Operators can now register to the network and begin validating for the AVSs. Restakers can delegate their stake to operators and start implementing the primary mission of EigenLayer.</p><p>EigenLayer paves the way for a thriving ecosystem of AVSs on the mainnet. <strong>To make your life easier, we prepared a short introduction to AVSs that went live recently. </strong>We support you in your restaking journey—that's what we do. Let's explore together.</p><h2 id="brevis-co-chain"><strong>Brevis Co-Chain</strong><br></h2><figure class="kg-card kg-image-card"><img src="https://p2p.org/economy/content/images/2024/04/brevis.jpg" class="kg-image" alt loading="lazy" width="2000" height="1125" srcset="https://p2p.org/economy/content/images/size/w600/2024/04/brevis.jpg 600w, https://p2p.org/economy/content/images/size/w1000/2024/04/brevis.jpg 1000w, https://p2p.org/economy/content/images/size/w1600/2024/04/brevis.jpg 1600w, https://p2p.org/economy/content/images/2024/04/brevis.jpg 2000w" sizes="(min-width: 720px) 720px"></figure><p><br>Smart contracts require quite a lot of computational resources to operate on-chain for data-driven or complex features. To access such features, users pay huge amounts of fees to Ethereum validators to execute the code of the smart contract.</p><p>To resolve that, <strong>Brevis migrates the heavy computation off-chain and allows smart contracts to access full historical on-chain data and run customizable computations in a trust-free manner using Zero-Knowledge Proofs.</strong> This has opened endless possibilities for data-driven features: DEXes are able to build<a href="https://twitter.com/UniswapFND/status/1719760883965149501?ref=p2p.org"> <u>VIP loyalty programs</u></a> based on a user's past trading volume; active liquidity management protocols can trigger predefined user intents with ZK-verified on-chain states and events; AMMs can have strong LVR protection and more robust farming reward distribution programs; protocols can utilize<a href="https://twitter.com/TrustaLabs/status/1768114687089295770?ref=p2p.org"> <u>multi-dimensional ZK-reputation</u></a> metrics to segment users and provide a personalized UX based on an address's on-chain footprint.</p><p>Alongside the "pure-ZK" model, the new Brevis coChain AVS "optimistically" generates result proposals for coprocessing requests, which are subject to challenge by Zero-Knowledge fraud proofs. This will drastically reduce costs in cases where proposals are not challenged, while the baseline security is ensured by the overarching coChain Slashing Window, which accepts ZKPs to rectify invalid results.</p><p><strong>More details</strong>: <a href="https://blog.brevis.network/2024/01/18/introducing-brevis-cochain-the-fusion-of-crypto-economics-and-zk-proof-in-a-zk-coprocessor/&nbsp;?ref=p2p.org" rel="noreferrer">Blog</a><br><strong>Social Media: </strong><a href="https://twitter.com/brevis_zk?ref=p2p.org" rel="noreferrer">Twitter</a></p><p></p><h2 id="altlayer">AltLayer</h2><figure class="kg-card kg-image-card"><img src="https://p2p.org/economy/content/images/2024/04/alt-layer.jpg" class="kg-image" alt loading="lazy" width="2000" height="1125" srcset="https://p2p.org/economy/content/images/size/w600/2024/04/alt-layer.jpg 600w, https://p2p.org/economy/content/images/size/w1000/2024/04/alt-layer.jpg 1000w, https://p2p.org/economy/content/images/size/w1600/2024/04/alt-layer.jpg 1600w, https://p2p.org/economy/content/images/2024/04/alt-layer.jpg 2000w" sizes="(min-width: 720px) 720px"></figure><p><br><strong>AltLayer offers products for rollups based on security from restaking (called restaked rollups)</strong>. It consists of three integrated “layers”; rollups may choose to use all of them or some particular layer according to their needs.</p><p><strong>VITAL</strong>—a decentralized verification network. It is used to verify rollup states—currently, this is done poorly or even in a centralized manner. It enhances the rollup's security properties.</p><p><strong>MACH</strong>—speeds up the finality of the rollups via restaked security. It acts as a “pre-Ethereum” rollup state attestation and finalization layer, which is partially secured by Ethereum (restaked ETH). This is particularly needed for faster interoperability since assets cannot be transferred to another blockchain until the state is finalized.&nbsp;</p><p><strong>SQUAD</strong>—is decentralized sequencing (txs ordering or block building) for rollups. It provides censorship resistance and additional utility for rollup tokens (presumably through a dual-staking model).</p><p><strong>More details:</strong> <a href="https://blog.altlayer.io/introducing-restaked-rollups-ac6a1e89b646?ref=p2p.org" rel="noreferrer">Blog</a><br><strong>Social Media:</strong> <a href="https://twitter.com/alt_layer?ref=p2p.org" rel="noreferrer">Twitter</a></p><p></p><h2 id="eoracle">eOracle</h2><figure class="kg-card kg-image-card"><img src="https://p2p.org/economy/content/images/2024/04/2560x1440-59.jpg" class="kg-image" alt loading="lazy" width="2000" height="1125" srcset="https://p2p.org/economy/content/images/size/w600/2024/04/2560x1440-59.jpg 600w, https://p2p.org/economy/content/images/size/w1000/2024/04/2560x1440-59.jpg 1000w, https://p2p.org/economy/content/images/size/w1600/2024/04/2560x1440-59.jpg 1600w, https://p2p.org/economy/content/images/2024/04/2560x1440-59.jpg 2000w" sizes="(min-width: 720px) 720px"></figure><p>Their design will revolutionize the Oracle space by extending Ethereum's core principles: permissionless participation, decentralized ownership, and crypto-economic security. <strong>They will establish the next-generation Oracle network via a credibly neutral marketplace for data and computation across all Ethereum rollups.</strong> eOracle is disrupting one of the industry's largest markets and one currently trending toward a monopoly. Designed as a modular and programmable data layer, eoracle is backed by restaked ETH and the decentralized network of Ethereum validators. eoracle is the Actively Validated Oracle built using EigenLayer and secured by Ethereum.</p><p><strong>More details:</strong> <a href="https://blog.eoracle.io/introducing-eoracle/?ref=p2p.org" rel="noreferrer">Blog</a><br><strong>Social Media:</strong> <a href="https://twitter.com/eoracle_network?ref=p2p.org" rel="noreferrer">Twitter</a></p><h2 id="witnesschain">WitnessChain</h2><figure class="kg-card kg-image-card"><img src="https://p2p.org/economy/content/images/2024/04/witness-chain--1-.jpg" class="kg-image" alt loading="lazy" width="2000" height="1125" srcset="https://p2p.org/economy/content/images/size/w600/2024/04/witness-chain--1-.jpg 600w, https://p2p.org/economy/content/images/size/w1000/2024/04/witness-chain--1-.jpg 1000w, https://p2p.org/economy/content/images/size/w1600/2024/04/witness-chain--1-.jpg 1600w, https://p2p.org/economy/content/images/2024/04/witness-chain--1-.jpg 2000w" sizes="(min-width: 720px) 720px"></figure><p><br>WitnessChain is the EigenLayer AVS for DePIN coordination. It is the first physical state consensus protocol that unifies a siloed DePIN economy. WitnessChain unlocks a shared economy of integrated physical assets, facilitating the exchange of resources like computing, networks, and more.</p><p>The Rollup Watchtower Network, which serves as WitnessChain’s in-house DePIN, is now live. This network is a first line of defense for rollups, ensuring that operators actively validate transactions on a Rollup and that any fraud is always detected. More than 17000 bounties have already been submitted for watching Optimism on testnet.</p><p><strong>WitnessChain has a vibrant ecosystem of 20+ DePINs and rollups that will benefit from being validated for their state.</strong> This validation is provided by robust crypto-economic security and a strong ecosystem of EL Operators.</p><p><strong>More details:</strong> <a href="https://twitter.com/witnesschain/status/1773058514254201308?ref=p2p.org" rel="noreferrer">Tweet</a><br><strong>Social Media:</strong> <a href="https://twitter.com/witnesschain?ref=p2p.org" rel="noreferrer">Twitter</a></p><h2 id="lagrange"><br>Lagrange</h2><figure class="kg-card kg-image-card"><img src="https://p2p.org/economy/content/images/2024/04/lagrange.jpg" class="kg-image" alt loading="lazy" width="2000" height="1125" srcset="https://p2p.org/economy/content/images/size/w600/2024/04/lagrange.jpg 600w, https://p2p.org/economy/content/images/size/w1000/2024/04/lagrange.jpg 1000w, https://p2p.org/economy/content/images/size/w1600/2024/04/lagrange.jpg 1600w, https://p2p.org/economy/content/images/2024/04/lagrange.jpg 2000w" sizes="(min-width: 720px) 720px"></figure><p>The Lagrange’s State Committee network is a ZK light client for optimistic rollups that settle on Ethereum, powered by Lagrange’s ZK Coprocessor.<br><br>By combining Lagrange State Committees with EigenLayer, we are creating a zone of shared security that any interoperability protocol or dApp can leverage without incurring high operational overhead. Compared to other cross-chain interoperability solutions, such as permissioned validation or bonded staking/slashing, which come with issues related to risk stacking, low latency, and price volatility, State Committees and restaking through EigenLayer offer an optimal balance of&nbsp;<strong>robust shared security, trust minimization</strong>,<strong> and decentralization along with cost efficiency</strong>.<br><br><strong>More details</strong>: <a href="https://medium.com/@lagrangelabs/scaling-programmable-trust-on-eigenlayer-with-lagranges-state-committees-and-big-data-coprocessor-ec56a7562652?ref=p2p.org" rel="noreferrer">Medium</a><br><strong>Social Media: </strong><a href="https://twitter.com/lagrangedev?ref=p2p.org" rel="noreferrer">Twitter</a></p><div class="kg-card kg-callout-card kg-callout-card-blue"><div class="kg-callout-emoji">💡</div><div class="kg-callout-text">STAY TUNED FOR MORE AVS!<br><br>ENJOY ALL THE BENEFITS OF RESTAKING WITH P2P.org</div></div><h2 id="contact-us">Contact Us:</h2><p><em>Do not hesitate to ask questions in our </em><a href="https://t.me/P2Pstaking?ref=p2p.org"><em>Telegram chat</em></a><em> <br>We are always open for communication.</em><br><br>We encourage you to check our website and start our staking journey together!</p><div class="kg-card kg-button-card kg-align-center"><a href="https://p2p.org/ethereum?ref=p2p.org" class="kg-btn kg-btn-accent">Stake with us!</a></div><hr><p><strong>Web:</strong> <a href="https://p2p.org/?ref=p2p.org">https://p2p.org</a><br><strong>Blog:</strong> <a href="https://p2p.org/economy/">https://p2p.org/economy</a><br><strong>Twitter:</strong> <a href="https://twitter.com/p2pvalidator?ref=p2p.org">@p2pvalidator</a><br><strong>Telegram:</strong> <a href="https://t.me/P2Pstaking?ref=p2p.org">https://t.me/P2Pstaking</a></p><p></p><p><br><br></p><p></p>